Published online 29 September 2005
Published in Soil Sci Soc Am J 69:1757-1760 (2005)
DOI: 10.2136/sssaj2004.0119
© 2005 Soil Science Society of America
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Pedology
Podzolization in a Sand Pit in Northern Michigan
C. J. Bronick and
D. L. Mokma*
Dep. of Crop and Soil Science, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, MI 48824-1325
* Corresponding author (mokma{at}msu.edu)
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ABSTRACT
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A study of podzolization during early soil development was conducted in a sand pit. The purpose of this study was to describe the effects of podzolization under jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) and red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) planted on C horizon material in the pit and to compare them with the undisturbed soil adjacent to the pit. The E, Bs, and C horizon materials were analyzed for organic matter (OM) by loss-on-ignition and optical density of the ammonium oxalate extract (ODOE), Al and Fe by ammonium oxalate extraction and plasma emission spectroscopy, pH, and color. After only 40 yr, soil colors indicated that there was evidence of eluviation and illuviation. Organic matter increased and pH decreased in surface horizons whereas, Al and to a lesser extent Fe showed indications of translocation. The Bs horizons that formed under jack pine tended to have more Al, Fe, and OM and higher ODOE values than those that formed under red pine. Podzolization was more visibly evident than chemically evident in the pit pedons. We classified four of the six pit pedons as Typic Udipsamments and the other two as Spodic Udipsamments and the two control pedons as Entic Haplorthods.
Abbreviations: ODOE, optical density of the ammonium oxalate extract • OM, organic matter
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INTRODUCTION
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MORPHOLOGICAL and chemical changes during early stages of podzolization are not well known. Many chronosequences of Spodosols or Podzols studied in the past included only a few surfaces and did not include very young soils (e.g., Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963; Evans and Cameron, 1979; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992). Barrett (2001) reported on a chronosequence in Michigan that had 24 different aged surfaces including young surfaces, however, no data were presented on the surfaces between 10 and 230 yr old. Paton et al. (1976) and Prosser and Roseby (1995) studied podzolization following sand mining in New South Wales, Australia. The original Spodosol profile had been completely destroyed in the mining process. Topsoil was stockpiled and subsurface materials (E, B, and C horizons) to depths greater than 4 m were mixed. The mixed materials were spread over original C horizon material and the stockpiled topsoil was spread over the mixed materials. One year after mining mixed materials had no organization into horizons but had random layers of bleached sands (Prosser and Roseby, 1995). Nine years after mining Paton et al. (1976) described bleached (10YR 8/2) E horizon pipes and a thin Bs horizon (10YR 4/4) in the replaced materials. Seventeen years after mining Prosser and Roseby (1995) found E horizons extending to depths of at least 3.7 m but no Bs horizon. They concluded profile development was essentially a redistribution of previous products of weathering, translocation and precipitation.
Changes in soil properties can occur over short periods. Chandler (1942), Burges and Drover (1953), and Olson (1958) concluded that Spodosols/Podzols require at least 1000 yr to form. E and Bs horizons were visible in pedons after 100 yr of development (Chandler, 1942; Tisdale et al., 1966). A thin bleached (E) horizon was observed below an O horizon after 30 to 40 yr of soil formation in Alaska (Crocker and Dickson, 1957). Barrett (2001) reported an E horizon was visible in a pedon on a 82-yr-old surface. A distinct E horizon was observed in a 3000-yr-old pedon but not in a 2250-yr-old pedon in Michigan (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963). Evidence of Fe translocation was reported in pedons that were at least 200-yr-old (Burges and Drover, 1953; Dickson and Crocker, 1954; Mokma et al., 2004). Barrett (2001) reported a Bs horizon was visible in a pedon on a 750-yr-old surface. More than 4000 yr were required for a spodic horizon to form in Michigan (Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992).
The unique nature of this study is the exposure of parent material in situ with controlled plantings and 40 yr of exposure to soil-forming processes. This age of soil development falls between the 10- and 82-yr-old surfaces in the Barrett (2001) study. The purpose of this study was to determine if podzolization was evident, visually or chemically, after 40 yr of soil formation under two tree species planted on C horizon material. This was accomplished by evaluating morphological and chemical changes in material in the sand pit and comparing that with soil that formed naturally adjacent to the sand pit.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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The study area is a portion of a 6-acre sand pit on an outwash plain in the Houghton Lake State Forest (SE1/4, SE1/4, NE1/4 Section 16, T21N, R4W, Roscommon County, Michigan; 44°12'50'' N lat., 84°47'37'' W long.). The Rubicon sand profile (Entic Haplorthod, sandy, mixed, frigid) was truncated during construction of highway US-27 in about 1958, exposing bare C horizon materials. We estimated 2 to 3 m (7 to 10 ft) of soil and subsoil materials had been excavated from the pit in the area of the current study. No topsoil or subsoil materials were added to aid revegetation. Experimental tree planting trials were established in 1960 to assess the effectiveness of fertilization treatments in the reforestation of areas with nutrient-deficient soils (White, 1965). Five conifer species were planted in randomized block design including red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.). White pine (Pinus strobus L.), Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), and white spruce (Picea glauca) were included in the original study but high mortality precluded their inclusion in this study. The fertilizer materials contained N, P, and K; lime was not listed as an ingredient of the fertilizer treatments (White, 1965). The fertilizer materials were placed in the bottom of the planting holes. The soil samples for this study were collected midway between the tree rows. The fertilizer materials influenced initial reforestation, but are not thought to influence podzolization. This situation provided an opportunity to study early stages of podzolization under jack pine and red pine. Mokma and Vance (1989) found soils under jack pine and red pine in Michigan had different degrees of podzolization.
Moist soil color was determined for E, Bs, and C horizons from 30 pedons located in the sand pit, 15 under jack pine and 15 under red pine in 1999. Two pits were located in areas that had high mortality. Samples of the horizons were obtained from pit faces. Dry color was obtained for E horizons after air-drying. Based on this preliminary investigation three representative pedons were selected and additionally sampled under jack pine and three under red pine. Bulk samples of E, Bs, and C horizons were collected from pit faces. Bulk samples were also collected from A, E, Bs, BC, and C horizons from two control pedons in the undisturbed Rubicon soil located approximately 15 m (50 ft) east of the sand pit. O horizons were not sampled as the focus was on the eluviation and illuviation of OM, Al, and Fe.
Soil samples were analyzed for OM, Al, Fe, and pH. The OM content was determined using the loss-on-ignition method (Schulte, 1980). Aluminum and Fe were extracted with ammonium oxalate and the extract analyzed by direct-coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (Soil Survey Laboratory Staff, 1996). Optical density of the oxalate extract was measured with a spectrophotometer at 430 nm. Samples were analyzed for pH using a 1:1 soil/water ratio.
Data from this study were analyzed using the GLM and ANOVA model procedure with SAS statistical software (SAS Institute, 1989). Differences between treatments were determined by using least squared means (LSMEANS) differences in the (p < 0.05) significance level.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Morphological Properties
The morphological properties of the C horizons of pedons in the sand pit were similar to those in the two control pedons (Tables 1 and 2) adjacent to the sand pit. All C horizons had sand texture, single grained structure, and loose consistence. No difference in sand size was observed in the C horizons. No stratification was observed in any pit. The color of the C horizons in the control pedons was 10YR 6/4 and that of those in the sand pit was 10YR 6/3 or 10YR 6/4. Therefore, we concluded that the pedons in the sand pit developed from materials similar to the C horizons of the control pedons and not in a combination of B and C horizons.
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Table 2. Thickness and color of horizons formed under red (Pinus resinosa Ait.) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) in the sand pit and the control pedons outside the sand pit.
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Colors of E horizons from both jack and red pine plots had lower chroma than those of C horizons (Table 2) suggesting removal of Al and Fe coatings from sand grains. Therefore, E horizons were visibly evident after only 40 yr of soil formation. The dry color value of all E horizons in sand pit and control pedons was 6 or 7 therefore all E horizons met the criteria for an albic horizon. Colors of Bs horizons had lower values than those of C horizons indicating illuviation of OM and possibly Fe. Thus, there was visual evidence for translocation of C and Fe and likely Al under jack and red pine after only 40 yr. The color of E horizons of the sand pit pedons were similar to those of the control pedons, whereas, the color of Bs horizons in the sand pit pedons was less red with yellower hues than those in the control pedons indicating less accumulation of sesquioxides. The color of the Bs horizons in the sand pit pedons did not meet the spodic materials color criteria (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), whereas that of the control pedons did meet the criteria. The mean thickness of O, E, and Bs horizons in the 15 pits under red pine and in the 15 pits under jack pine were not significantly different (Table 2). Mean solum thickness of the control pedons was significantly greater than that of the pit pedons.
Chemical Properties
There were no significant differences in Al, Fe, and OM contents of the C horizons (Table 3). This finding supports the conclusion that the pedons in the sand pit developed from materials similar to the C horizons of the control pedons. Bs horizons of the pit pedons tended to have greater Al contents than E horizons suggesting translocation of some Al had occurred. The Al contents of E, Bs, and C horizons were not significantly different. The Al contents of E horizons tended to be greater than that of C horizons of both sand pit pedons and control pedons, although this was not statistically significant due to variability between pedons. This is likely the result of weathering of minerals by organic acids in E horizons that released Al, some of which has not been eluviated. If the distribution of Al resulted only from the weathering of minerals, we would expect the E horizons to have greater Al contents than the Bs horizons. The lesser amount of Al in E horizons than in B horizons indicates that eluviation of Al had occurred in the E horizons.
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Table 3. Aluminum (g kg–1), Fe (g kg–1), organic matter (%) contents, optical density of ammonium oxalate extract (ODOE), and pH values for mineral horizons formed under red and jack pine in the sand pit and control pedons outside the sand pit.
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Iron content tended to be greater in the E horizons than in C horizons of both the sand pit pedons and the control pedons. This also supports the hypothesis that minerals may have weathered in E horizons and much Fe has not been eluviated. The Bs horizons under jack pine tended to have more Fe than E horizons suggesting Fe had translocated. The Fe contents of E, Bs, and C horizons were not significantly different. There was little evidence of translocation of Fe in pedons under red pine. Stützer (1998) found Fe was less involved than Al in the translocation process in early stages of podzolization in young aeolian sediments under pine (Pinus mugo and Pinus contorta) and spruce (Picea sitchensis) in Denmark. None of the Bs horizons, including those of the control pedons, met the Alo plus 1/2 Feo criterion for spodic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
E horizons had more OM than C horizons of pedons from the sand pit and the control pedons (Table 3). This is consistent with the presence of vegetation and formation of an A horizon. Bs horizons under jack pine had more OM than those under red pine. The average E/Bs ratio of OM tended to be greater under red pine (1.6) than under jack pine (1.1). The Bs horizons in the sand pit pedons did not meet the organic C criterion for spodic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), whereas, those of the control pedons did meet the criterion.
The ODOE values were greater in Bs horizons than in C horizons (Table 3). The ODOE has been found to be a good measure of OM that is involved with translocation of Al and Fe (Mokma, 1993). Bs horizons under jack pine had significantly greater ODOE values than E horizons, whereas, under red pine Bs and E horizons had similar ODOE values. This is consistent with pedons under jack pine having more translocation of Al and Fe than those under red pine. The ODOE values for Bs horizons under jack pine and the control pedons met the criterion for spodic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), but those under red pine did not meet it.
The pH of the E horizon of all pedons was lower than that of the C horizons (Table 3). Plant uptake of nutrients and organic acids resulting from addition and decomposition of organic matter may have contributed to the decrease of pH at the surface. Red pine appeared to have acidified the soil material more than jack pine. This may be related to the tendency of jack pine to hold its needles and branches longer than red pine, and thereby supply less fresh organic matter to the soil. The pH of the Bs horizons under red pine and the control met the pH criterion of spodic materials but not those under jack pine (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). The pH of the C horizon under jack pine was significantly higher than that of the control pedons. This may explain the higher pH in the upper horizons under jack pine. The higher pH values in the pit C horizon materials may result from the fact that these materials were located deeper in the C horizon of the natural soil before excavation of the pit than the C horizon materials sampled in the control pedons. The lack of significant differences in morphological and chemical properties under jack and red pine after only 40 yr of soil development was not surprising. The different degrees of podzolization in soils under jack and red pine reported by Mokma and Vance (1989) were related to fire frequency and our study site was not burned during the 40 yr of soil formation.
Soil Classification
The E horizons of all six pit pedons met the color criteria for albic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), therefore, they qualify as albic horizons. The pedons in the sand pit had Bs horizons that did not meet the color criteria and all chemical criteria for spodic materials. One of the six Bs horizons had at least 0.50% Al + 1/2Fe and four had an ODOE value of 0.25 or more. Only one of the E horizons had less than one half the Al + 1/2Fe of the respective Bs horizons. Two of the six E horizons had ODOE values less than one half that of the respective Bs horizon. Four of the Bs horizons met the pH criterion of spodic materials. None of the Bs horizons met the organic C criterion of spodic materials. None of the six pit pedons met the criteria for spodic materials. Five of the six Bs horizons had at least 0.25% Al + 1/2Fe and all six had an ODOE value of at least 0.12, criteria of Spodic Udipsamments. One of the E horizons had less than one half the Al + 1/2Fe of the respective Bs horizon. Two of the E horizons had less than one half the ODOE value of the respective Bs horizon. We classified two of the six pit pedons as mixed, frigid Spodic Udipsamments and the other four as mixed, frigid Typic Udipsamments. The two Spodic Udipsamments had formed under jack pine. We did not determine if the pedons had at least 90% resistant minerals. Sand pits in Roscommon County, Michigan were classified and correlated as Udipsamments (NRCS, 1999).
The E horizons in the control pedons met the criteria for albic horizons. The Bs horizons in the control pedons met the organic C, pH and color criteria but not the other chemical criteria. The E horizons of these pedons did not meet the Al + 1/2Fe and ODOE criteria for spodic materials. Based on morphology the Bs horizons of the control pedons do qualify as spodic materials. We classified the two control pedons as sandy, mixed frigid Entic Haplorthods.
There appears to be a problem with the Al + 1/2Fe and ODOE criteria for E horizons compared to Bs horizons for both spodic materials and Spodic Udipsamments. Six of the eight pedons, including one control pedon, failed to meet the Al + 1/2Fe criterion. Five of the eight pedons, including one control pedon, failed to meet the ODOE criterion. In all four Spodosol pedons (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) with O horizons overlying E (A2) horizons, the E horizons had more organic C than one half that of the Bs or Bh horizon. This raises the question of the validity of using organic C as a criterion for the spodic horizon. Optical density of ammonium oxalate extract has been found (Mokma, 1993) to be highly correlated to organic C involved with translocation of Al and Fe. The four pedons (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) had sufficient organic C to meet the organic C criterion for a spodic horizon. In the Spodosol pedon with an O horizon overlying a Bs horizon, the E horizon also had sufficient C to meet the organic C criterion for a spodic horizon. The spodic horizon criteria require twice as much Al + 1/2Fe than the overlying E horizon or an ODOE value twice as great as that in the overlying E horizon. Bt horizons are required to have only 1.2 times the clay content of the overlying E horizon to qualify for argillic, natric, and kandic horizons (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Why is more eluviation and illuviation required for spodic horizons than for argillic, natric, and kandic horizons? If 1.2, rather than 2, times more Al + 1/2Fe and ODOE were required, four of the six pit pedons would have met these criteria. Additional research is needed to solve these problems.
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CONCLUSIONS
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Forty years after soil removal and planting of five conifer species, podzolization had formed a sequence of O, E, and Bs horizons in sand parent materials. Weathering of minerals, addition of OM and translocation of OM, Al, and Fe were the major processes that had occurred. The translocation processes were more evident visually than chemically. There was a tendency for Bs horizons to have more Al, Fe and OM than E horizons, suggesting some translocation has occurred. ODOE values of E and Bs horizons were significantly greater than those of C horizons. However, the amounts of Al and Fe of E, Bs, and C horizons were not significantly different. We classified four of the six pit pedons as mixed, frigid Typic Udipsamments and the other two as mixed, frigid Spodic Udipsamments. The control pedons were classified as sandy, mixed, frigid Entic Haplorthods.
Received for publication March 22, 2004.
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
