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Nutrient Management & Soil & Plant Analysis

Nitrogen Recovery and Partitioning with Different Rates and Methods of Sidedressed Manure

^a Agric. & Agri-Food Canada, Southern Crop Protection & Food Research Centre, 1391 Sandford St., London, ON, N5V 4T3 Canada
^b R.C. Roy (deceased), Agric. & Agri-Food Canada, Southern Crop Protection & Food Research Centre, Delhi, ON, N4B 2W9 Canada

^* Corresponding author (ballb{at}agr.gc.ca)

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Animal manure is an important source of N for crops in areas with intensive livestock production. Variable manure N availability can incite over-application of manure or supplemental fertilizer leading to low N recovery and possible negative environmental and economic impacts. To improve manure N use efficiency, the effects of rate and method of sidedress application of liquid swine (Sus scrofa) manure (LSM) on N recovery by corn (Zea mays L.) were determined. We used in-row injection (INJ) or topdressing (TD) to sidedress LSM from 1999 to 2002 at rates ranging from 0 to 93.5 m³ ha^–1, and measured grain N uptake and NO₃–N in drainage tile water, stalks, and topsoil postharvest. Apparent recovery of manure total N (LSM-N) ranged from 0 to 57% and was greatest with injection of 37.4 m³ ha^–1 (194 kg LSM-N ha^–1). Injection rate to achieve 95% of maximum grain yield averaged 216 kg LSM-N ha^–1 over 4 yr. Transport of LSM-N to ground- and surface waters was minimized when sidedressed at or below rates for optimal yield. When injected N exceeded crop demand, NO₃–N increased to over 10 mg kg^–1 in topsoil, 20 mg L^–1 in drainage water, and to excessive (3.6 g kg^–1) levels in stalks. Due to greater LSM-N recovery, injection (59%) is recommended rather than topdress (41%) for sidedress application of manure.

Abbreviations: INJ, inject • LSM, liquid swine manure • LSM-N, liquid swine manure total N • N_inorg, soil inorganic N • PSNT, presidedress nitrate test • TD, topdress

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
MANURE is an important source of N for crops in areas with intensive livestock production. Crop N requirements can be used to determine appropriate application rates where there is minimal risk of P delivery to surface water (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2003; Sharpley et al., 2000). Reported manure N-use efficiencies are low, however. For example, apparent recovery of N ([N uptake – N uptake of check] ÷ applied N) by corn from mid-May broadcast, non-incorporated LSM with C/N ratio 10:1 was 14% (first year average of three Quebec soils; Miller and MacKenzie, 1978). Similarly, apparent N recovery from fall broadcast, incorporated beef feedlot manure containing 92% organic N averaged 20% over 4 yr, when residual effects were accounted for by reducing manure application rates in Years 2, 3, and 4 (Eghball and Power, 1999).

Growers sometimes compensate for low manure-N efficiency by either increasing manure application rates or applying fertilizer N in addition to manure. This loading may cause N movement to ground- and surface waters and build-up of soil P in the case of increased manure application rates (Cote et al., 1999). Swine wastewater applications in North Carolina led to increased NO₃–N concentrations in groundwater and increased NH₃–N and NO₃–N in stream water (Stone et al., 1998). Nitrogen moves to groundwater by leaching and to surface waters both with overland flow and through tile drains. The ensuing N enrichment impairs drinking water quality, and in surface waters contributes to eutrophication (Hubbard et al., 2004).

Since N-use efficiency of land-applied manure can vary greatly depending on the method and time of application (Mooleki et al., 2002), there is potential for improvement. Few studies report manure N-use efficiency from sidedress application despite numerous advantages, such as the opportunity for seasonal rate adjustment based on soil supply and crop demand. Seasonal rate adjustment has resulted in considerable economic and environmental gains in fertilized systems (Sogbedji et al., 2001). Also in fertilized systems, tools such as the postharvest topsoil (Andraski et al., 2000) and corn stalk (Brouder et al., 2000) NO₃–N tests have been developed to assess N management. For example, stalk NO₃–N concentrations >2 g kg^–1 indicate either excess NO₃–N in soil or stress occurrence (Binford et al., 1990). Data are needed to confirm whether these tools are similarly useful for reporting on N balance in manured systems.

The transition from mixed arable-livestock farming to specialized operations has resulted in the uncoupling of nutrient cycles and consequent pollution (Hooda et al., 2000). Systems that restore soil-plant-animal nutrient cycles are needed for economic and environmental sustainability. We hypothesized that manure N-use efficiency could be improved through precision in timing, rate, and placement to the extent that corn nutrient requirements could be met using liquid manure without compromising the environment. Objectives of this study were to determine effects of rate and method of sidedressed LSM on N partitioning in the plant–soil–water system and on N balance indicators such as the end-of-season soil and stalk NO₃–N tests.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Cultural Practices
Eight sidedress manure treatments comparing five rates and two methods of application were imposed in non-irrigated corn in southern Ontario. In 1999, the experiment was conducted on Brunisolic Gray Brown Luvisol (Typic Hapludalf), Huron clay loam series at 43°20' N, 81°36' W. Due to increasing concerns about transfer of manure to tile drains, the experiment was moved to a field at 43°44' N, 81°01' W (Brunisolic Gray Brown Luvisol, Typic Hapludalf, Huron silt loam series) with systematic tiling where each of the 16 plots was centered over a different drainage tile (Fig. 1 ), and continued from 2000 to 2002. Plots were 12 rows wide (6 m in 1999, 9.1 m in 2000–2002) by 305 (1999) or 206 (2000–2002) m long, and were arranged in a randomized strip plot design with two replicates per treatment at each site. The 1999 site was not tilled and was previously cropped with corn. Fall plowing and spring secondary tillage were completed each year at the 2000 to 2002 site, which was cropped with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) before the experiment and had no known history of manure application. Corn was planted in late April or early May each year in narrow (51 cm, 1999) or wide (76 cm, 2000–2002) rows with 47 L ha^–1 6–26–6 in furrow.

View larger version (76K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Experimental design where liquid swine manure was injected (INJ) or topdressed (TD) at different rates (m3 ha–1) from 2000–2002, with location of the drainage tile access for each of the 16 plots overlain on photo taken 18 Jul. 2001.

Sampling and Analyses
Corn Grain Yield, Nitrogen Concentration, and Uptake
Corn grain yield was measured every 1 to 3 s along the entire plot length (two six-row passes per plot) using a combine equipped with a yield monitor and GPS receiver in late October or early November each year. Grain subsamples were manually collected before combining from four 6-m sections per plot approximately 40 m apart along the center of each 12-row plot. Following weight and moisture determination, grain samples were dried to approximately 15% moisture, ground to <2 mm using a Wiley mill, and then ground finer by rolling for 48 h on a conveyor in glass jars containing stainless steel rods. Total N in ground grain was then determined by combustion analysis (LECO Corp., St. Joseph, MI). Grain N uptake was calculated by multiplying yield (kg ha^–1) corrected to 15.5% moisture at each subsampling location by grain N concentration at the same location.

Grain yield response to total N in injected manure (LSM-N as the independent variable) was analyzed using the Mixed procedure for repeated measures (SAS Institute, 1999), with subsampling location specified as the residual effect in the repeated statement (replicate pooled across total N rate as the subject) and preapplication soil NO₃–N (PSNT, Ball-Coelho et al., 2005a) as the covariate. The response was analyzed by year rather than with all years combined because unlike LSM volume, LSM-N rates were unique each year, due to yearly variation in LSM-N concentration (Table 1). The PSNT was used as a covariate due to spatial variation and correlations with grain yield (r = 0.39, P = 0.032 in 1999; r = 0.11, P = 0.65 in 2000; r = 0.31, P = 0.015 in 2001; and r = 0.43, P = 0.0059 in 2002, INJ treatments). When grain yield response to LSM-N was affected by the PSNT (all but 2002, Table 1), yield means and regression curves were adjusted using several (4 to 5) PSNT values each year representative of the PSNT range measured in the field (3 to 20 mg NO₃–N kg^–1 in 1999; and 3 to 12 mg NO₃–N kg^–1 in 2000 and 2001). Adjusted regressions were generated using adjusted least squares mean yields at that PSNT level and the reciprocal of the square of the standard error of each mean as weights (Milliken and Johnson, 2002b). Total amounts of N in injected manure required to achieve 95% of maximum grain yield (optimal yield) were calculated using the quadratic response functions.

The PSNT was also correlated with grain N concentration (r = 0.55, P < 0.0001) and grain N uptake (r = 0.38, P < 0.0001) from 1999 to 2002. Therefore grain N concentration and uptake data were analyzed with the PSNT specified as a covariate using the Mixed procedure for repeated measures (SAS Institute, 1999), with site-year (1999–2002) specified as a repeated effect in a random statement (replicate pooled across method x rate as the subject) and subsampling location specified as the residual effect in the repeated statement (year x replicate pooled across method x rate as the subject). Rate was specified on a volume basis for these models. Grain N data collected from two subsample locations of one replicate in 1999 could not be included in covariate analyses because corresponding preapplication soil samples were not collected. Grain N data collected from locations where fertilizer N was inadvertently applied (two subsample locations in 2000, described in Ball-Coelho et al., 2005a) were also excluded because covariate adjustment did not completely remove the fertilizer effect. Grain N data were subset for two balanced analyses. Method effects were assessed by excluding data at rates where both methods were not tested, while rate effects were assessed by excluding TD data since it was not tested at all rates. The relationship between grain N data (1999–2002 grouped data) and the PSNT varied each year, as indicated by PSNT x year interactions for both grain N concentration and uptake. Grain N concentration increased with PSNT in 1999 and 2002 but not in 2000 or 2001, while grain N uptake increased with PSNT each year except 2000. Therefore method and rate means were adjusted to the average PSNT of the experiment each year and compared within years.

Agronomic efficiency was calculated based on grain yield (kg grain ha^–1 ÷ kg total N in applied manure ha^–1). Manure-N recovery (kg grain N uptake ha^–1 ÷ kg total N in applied manure ha^–1) and apparent recovery (kg grain N uptake ha^–1 [manured – check] ÷ kg total N in applied manure ha^–1) were calculated based on N removed in harvested grain. For comparison to literature values, apparent LSM-N recovery was also calculated using aboveground crop uptake by assuming stover N uptake was 20 (control) and 40 (manured) kg N ha^–1 (measured response to fertilizer N; Ball-Coelho et al., 2005b).

Inorganic Nitrogen in Topsoil Postharvest and Down the Soil Profile
Residual N_inorg in topsoil (0–20 cm) following harvest was determined from a composite of nine (1999), ten (2000, 2002), or 12 (2001) 2-cm diam. cores collected from each subsample location on 15 Oct. 1999, 14 Nov. 2000, 12 Nov. 2001, and 21 Oct. 2002. Nitrogen partitioning in deeper layers of the soil profile was assessed by collecting cores from LSM₀ INJ, LSM_37.4 INJ, LSM_74.8 INJ, and LSM_37.4 TD treatments about 3 mo after the second (on 27 Aug. and 11 Sept. 2001) and third (4–5 Sept. 2002) application of LSM at the silt loam site as described in Ball-Coelho et al. (2005a). Soil sampled to 180 (2001) and 120 (2002) cm deep was divided into five or seven depth increments (0–20, 20–40, 40–60, 60–90, and 90–120 cm in both 2001 and 2002, as well as 120–150 and 150–180 cm in 2002). Soil was mixed by pushing through a 6-mm opening screen, and N_inorg was then extracted by shaking 12.5 g of field-moist soil in 25 mL of 2 M KCl for 1 h. Concentrations of NO₃–N and NH₄–N in filtered soil extracts (Maynard and Kalra, 1993) were determined using continuous flow (Tel and Rao, 1981) colorimetry for 1999–2001 samples, and flow injection (Lachat Instruments, Milwaukee, WI) analysis (Liao, 1999; Diamond, 2001) for samples collected in 2002. Concentrations were corrected to a dry soil weight basis using gravimetric water content determined separately for each sample.

A log₁₀ transformation normalized postharvest topsoil NO₃–N data and application method and rate effects were analyzed using the Mixed procedure for repeated measures (SAS Institute, 1999), with site-year (1999–2002) specified as a repeated effect in a random statement (replicate pooled across method x rate as the subject) and subsampling location specified as the residual effect in the repeated statement (year x replicate pooled across method x rate as the subject). Soil profile NO₃–N amounts were calculated based on significant treatment differences in NO₃–N concentrations (Ball-Coelho et al., 2005a) and bulk densities estimated from core weights and volumes.

End-of-Season Stalk Nitrates
Eight 20-cm stalk sections (the section 15–35 cm above the soil surface) were collected on 16 Oct. 2002 from each of the 64 subsample locations where corn was manually harvested, and leaf debris was removed. Dried stalks were ground to <2 mm, a 0.5-g ground sample was shaken in 20 mL of dilute (2%) acetic acid for 1 h, and NO₃–N concentrations in the filtered extracts were determined. A natural log transformation normalized corn stalk NO₃–N (2002) data, which were analyzed according to the randomized complete block design using the General Linear Models procedure (SAS Institute, 1999) for ANOVA.

Tile and Adjacent Surface Water NO₃–N Concentrations
To collect tile water samples, access holes were excavated at the downstream ends of plots using a post-hole digger. Initially (June 2000) holes were excavated in only LSM₀, LSM_56.1, and LSM_93.5 INJ, and LSM_56.1 TD treatment plots. Exposed tiles were fitted with a metal trough, and corrugated plastic culverts were installed to stabilize access hole walls. It was noted during the 2000 season that the grooves of the installed culverts allowed mice to access and potentially contaminate tile drainage water. Therefore when access to the remaining eight tiles was installed in October 2000, walls of all access holes were instead stabilized using smooth plastic barrels, which when sealed off around the tile opening using insulating foam, excluded most rodents. Tile water samples were collected manually in 2000 and 2001. In 2002, automated water samplers (Isco Inc., Lincoln, NE) were used to collect water from all but four (LSM₀ TD and LSM_28.1 INJ treatments) of the 16 outlets, where samples were collected manually. Liquid level actuators placed in a plastic cup below each outlet were used to trigger automatic samplers whenever flow commenced. When flow was continuous, samplers were programmed for collection every 15 min for the first few hours and for every hour thereafter. Float-triggered bilges pumped out any standing water to ensure that samples were collected from water flowing directly out of the tiles.

Water samples were also collected manually from the main outlet draining the experimental area (2000–2002), and from the drainage ditch below, both up- and downstream of the outlet (2001–2002). Water from the outlet consisted of drainage water from all tiles in the experimental area plus several tiles draining the surrounding field, which was also planted with corn but did not receive manure. Samples collected from tiles, the outlet, and ditch until approximately fall freeze-up (November or December) were filtered (0.45 µm) and then frozen until concentrations of dissolved NH₄–N and NO₃–N were determined by flow injection analysis (Liao, 1999; Diamond, 2001).

Drainage water NO₃–N concentration data were grouped seasonally for analyses because treatment effects were observed later in the season (post-nitrification) rather than immediately after LSM application due to characteristically low NO₃–N in LSM. June to October 2000 data were analyzed as a separate group since tile water was accessed from only four treatments at that time. Thereafter, tile water was collected from all treatments, and data were grouped according to when LSM was applied: fall 2000 to preapplication 2001, post-application (summer) 2001 to preapplication (spring) 2002, and finally preapplication 2002 until monitoring ended on 30 July due to dry weather and lack of flow. Treatment effects on tile water NO₃–N concentrations were assessed using the Mixed procedure for repeated measures (SAS Institute, 1999), with sampling event within a season specified in the repeated statement (replicate pooled across method x rate as the subject). Tile data were subset for two analyses as described for grain N data.

The Akaike information criterion (AIC) for goodness of fit (Littell et al., 1998) was used to determine whether separate variance estimates each year were required for grain N and post-harvest topsoil NO₃–N data as site and year were confounded in 1999, and to determine the appropriate structure of the covariance matrix for all repeated models (Littell et al., 1998). Grain yield and N models were simplified with respect to the covariate (PSNT) as described in Milliken and Johnson (2002a). For all response variables, when treatment effects were significant, means were compared using the protected LSD at a 0.05 probability level (SAS Institute, 1999).

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Corn Grain Yield Response to Injected Liquid Swine Manure-Nitrogen Rate
To describe relationships between grain yield and injected LSM (Table 2), total N in manure rather than LSM volume was used as the independent variable, which compensated for yearly variation in LSM-N. For example, LSM was more dilute with respect to total N in 2002 and consequently the range of total N injected was narrower in 2002 than in other years (Table 1). Relationships between grain yield and amount of LSM-N injected were improved with adjustment for PSNT as indicated by greater coefficients of determination for adjusted than unadjusted relationships (Table 2) in the 3 yr (1999–2001) that PSNT affected yield response (Table 1). Fit of adjusted (1999–2001) models was best when estimated at PSNT = 9 mg NO₃–N kg^–1 (Table 2), which is near to the average PSNT of the experiments in those years (8.3 mg kg^–1). Covariate adjustment of yield response was not required in 2002 (Table 1) probably because PSNT values were uniformly low (averaged 4.6 mg kg^–1 for INJ treatments) relative to 1999 through 2001.

Application Method Effects on Grain Nitrogen Concentration and Uptake
Grain N concentrations were greater with INJ than TD in years when corn was sidedressed early (4- to 6-leaf stage in 2001, 2002), but did not differ with method in 1999 or 2000 when corn was sidedressed at 8- to 10-leaf stage (Tables 3 and 4). Furthermore, averaged over 4 yr, grain N concentrations were greater with INJ than TD in the manured (LSM_37.4 and LSM_56.1) plots (Tables 3 and 4). Grain N uptake followed trends similar to concentrations. In 2001 and 2002, grain N uptake was greater with INJ than TD (at LSM_37.4 and LSM_56.1), but in 1999 and 2000 with later sidedressing, was not affected by application method (Tables 3 and 4).

Reduced N availability with topdressing is attributed to NH₃–N volatilization. Less notable method effects on N availability in years when sidedressing occurred later was likely the result of less volatilization with TD under the larger canopy where near surface air movement and temperature were reduced. Sodium bicarbonate-extractable P in the top 20 cm of soil remained the same for TD and INJ (Ball-Coelho et al., 2005a), providing evidence that runoff was not a major mechanism of nutrient loss with TD.

Liquid Swine Manure-Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Recovery
Agronomic efficiency of LSM-N (Table 5) was greater with INJ than TD in most cases (at 37.4 and 56.1 m³ ha^–1). At the injection rate for optimum yield, agronomic efficiency averaged 45 kg grain kg LSM-N^–1 over 4 yr (PSNT = 9 mg kg^–1), was greatest in 2002 (unadjusted), and least in 2000 (Table 2). Lower grain yield per unit LSM-N applied with INJ in 2000 than in other years (Tables 2 and 5) was likely due to wet conditions, which limited yield potential and may have increased N leaching.

Apparent LSM-N recovery, which accounts for crop N uptake with no N applied, was greater with INJ than TD, particularly at LSM_37.4 (Table 5). Similarly, Mooleki et al. (2002) found greater apparent LSM-N recoveries with injection than with broadcast plus incorporation most years. Calculated in terms of aboveground crop (grain + stover) N uptake rather than grain N uptake alone (crop N removal), apparent N recovery from LSM_37.4 INJ averaged 43%. This is comparable with other estimates of 25 to 45% of LSM-N by canola, wheat, and barley (grain + straw) in Saskatchewan (Mooleki et al., 2002); 25 to 32% of dairy manure N by fescue in British Columbia (Bittman et al., 1999); 54% of urea ammonium nitrate N by corn in Ontario (3 yr average, 150 kg N ha^–1, Ball-Coelho and Roy, unpublished data), and 37% of fertilizer N on farms in North Central USA (Cassman et al., 2002).

Nitrogen Management Indicators
Post-Harvest Topsoil NO₃–N
Residual topsoil NO₃–N concentrations increased with LSM-N rate more so for INJ than TD and were greater with INJ than TD at both LSM_37.4 and LSM_56.1 (Table 3, Fig. 2 ). Method and rate effects (Table 3) were more prominent in years when greater amounts of LSM-N were applied (2000, 2001; data not shown). Schmitt et al. (1995) similarly observed greater fall soil (0–30 cm) NO₃–N concentrations with (preplant) injected than with broadcast manure application.

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Postharvest soil NO3–N concentrations in the top 20 cm (1999–2002 geometric means except at 110 kg N ha–1) and end of season stalk NO3–N concentration in 2002 for five sidedressed liquid swine manure (LSM) N application rates and two application methods (inject [INJ] and topdress [TD]). Total N in LSM is the average of 1999–2002 (soil data) or 2002 (stalk data) values. Within a dependent variable, means with the same letter are not different at P 0.05 as determined by the protected LSD test.

Tile Drainage Water NO₃–N
Dissolved NO₃–N concentrations in tile drainage water reflected total N balance in the system. In 2000, application rate effects were apparent approximately 1 mo after sidedressing. Tile water NO₃–N concentrations increased with LSM_93.5, decreased with the control (LSM₀), and were unchanged at the near-optimal application rate of LSM_56.1 (Table 6, Fig. 3 ). By August 2000, concentrations were 10 to 20 mg L^–1 greater with LSM_93.5 than LSM₀ or LSM_56.1. On October 16, LSM_93.5 tiles were not flowing, but LSM_56.1 concentrations were more than 5 mg L^–1 greater than LSM₀ (Fig. 3). From the time that all 16 tile access points became operational until before application the following spring (14 Nov. 2000–19 Jun. 2001), the rate effect was consistent (Table 6), with greater concentrations following LSM_93.5 and LSM_74.8 than LSM₀ (Fig. 3). From 19 Jun. 2001 to 19 Jun. 2002, concentrations at LSM_74.8 > LSM_18.7 on most dates, LSM_56.1 > LSM₀ on six dates, LSM_37.4 > LSM₀ on two dates, and LSM_56.1 > LSM_37.4 on three dates (Table 6, Fig. 3).

View larger version (30K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Rainfall and tile water NO3–N concentrations throughout 2000 to 2002 with three or five liquid swine manure sidedress rates, averaged over method (inject and topdress) of application. Concentrations are averaged over groups of sampling events (November 2000–June 2001, and 19 Jun.–30 Jul. 2002) when the rate effect did not vary with time. Bars are standard error, with only the largest standard error shown for each sampling event.

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Tile water NO3–N concentrations following sidedress of liquid swine manure (LSM) at different rates by injection or topdress, averaged over all sampling events between 19 Jun. 2001 and 19 Jun. 2002.

View larger version (27K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Tile water NO3–N concentrations from 19 Jun. 2001 to 19 Jun. 2002 for two liquid swine manure sidedress application methods (injection and topdress), average of 37.4 and 56.1 m3 ha–1 application rates. Within boxed areas, means for the two methods are different at P 0.05 as determined by the protected LSD test.

Impact of Liquid Swine Manure Application on NO₃–N in Receiving Surface Waters
Concentrations of NO₃–N in water from the main header outlet (into which all plots drained) relative to concentrations in the receiving surface waters both up- and downstream indicated that flow from the experimental area (integration of treatments over 3 ha) had little measurable impact on surface water NO₃–N loading. Generally concentrations were no greater at the down- than at the upstream location. Concentrations were sometimes greater from the outlet than from up- or downstream points (before 2001 application and 23 Jul. 2002), but instances also occurred when concentrations were either less in the outlet than in the stream (fall 2001) or were similar in both locations (June 2001 and 29–30 Jul. 2002).

Nitrogen Partitioning in Crop, Soil, and Tile Drainage Water
Amounts of NO₃–N deeper in the soil profile indicated some N partitioning to subsoil layers at excess LSM application rates. The difference in NO₃–N accumulation for appropriate as compared with excessive application rates was 21 (2001) to 28 (2002) kg ha^–1 more NO₃–N at 40 to 90 cm deep with LSM_74.8 than with LSM_37.4 INJ. In terms of N applied in excess of crop uptake, 14 (2001) and 29% (2002) of the surplus N applied with LSM_74.8 was recovered as NO₃–N in subsoil layers. Amounts of NH₄–N in topsoil postharvest (<5 kg ha^–1), deeper in the profile (data not shown), and transferred to tiles within 2 d of application (<0.5 kg ha^–1, data not shown) were insignificant relative to overall N balance.

We estimated NO₃–N transfer to tiles by assuming that 25% of the rain which fell from October to May each year drained to tiles. Drainage proportions were based on literature values from Ontario (30%, Drury et al., 1996), the UK (20%, Goulding et al., 2000), and Indiana (15%, Kladivko et al., 2004). Multiplying this flow estimate by average tile water NO₃–N concentration, approximately 9, 11, and 18 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 moved to tiles from fall 2000 to spring 2001 and 15, 26, and 36 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 from fall 2001 to spring 2002 with LSM₀, LSM_37.4, and LSM_74.8 INJ, respectively. Greater transfer from 2001–2002 than from 2000–2001 is attributable to differences in precipitation, as NO₃–N concentrations were similar. Amounts are comparable with estimates from fertilized corn systems in Ontario of 26 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 yr^–1 (Drury et al., 1996), Indiana of 18 to 70 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 yr^–1 (Kladivko et al., 1991), Minnesota of 50 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 yr^–1 (Randall et al., 1997), and Iowa of 5 to >65 kg NO₃–N ha^–1 yr^–1 (Jaynes et al., 1999). As a proportion of the LSM-N applied, amount that moved to tiles as NO₃–N ranged from 5 to 6% (kg NO₃–N ÷ kg N applied) in 2000–2001 and 8 to 11% in 2001–2002 with LSM_37.4 and LSM_74.8, respectively. This is comparable with proportions observed in a fertilized watershed by Jaynes et al. (1999) of 10% of the N amount applied in a dry year, although NO₃–N movement to drainage water in their study ranged more widely (8–47% of N applied) in wetter years.

The difference in N movement to tile for appropriate as compared with excessive application rates was small in terms of the overall N budget, amounting to 7 (2000–2001) to 10 (2001–2002) kg ha^–1 more NO₃–N transferred to tiles following LSM_74.8 than LSM_37.4. In terms of N applied in excess of crop uptake, the proportion of N that moved to tiles was 5% from fall 2000 to spring 2001 following LSM_93.5 and 11% from fall 2001 to spring 2002 following LSM_74.8. Thus a larger proportion of the N applied in excess of uptake was recovered as NO₃–N in soil (23% topsoil + 21% in subsoil = 44%) than in tile drainage water (8%). Some of the NO₃–N contained in subsoil was within 1 m of the surface and thus remained available for subsequent crops. A portion of subsoil NO₃–N would also move to groundwater or more likely be denitrified. Cambardella et al. (1999) for example determined that Iowa subsoils (glacial till parent material, as in our study) have the capacity to denitrify 20 340 kg N ha^–1, the equivalent of 36 kg N ha^–1 yr^–1 for 565 yr. Further to denitrification losses, some of the unrecovered N likely remained in organic form in soil.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

 
Sidedress injection was more efficient than topdressing in terms of N conservation in the soil–plant system. Corn grain N concentration and uptake were 1.0 g kg^–1 and 44 kg ha^–1 greater respectively with INJ than TD at both LSM_37.4 and LSM_56.1 in the 2 yr when corn was small when sidedressed. Recovery of LSM-N with TD was more variable and on average 18% less than with INJ at LSM_37.4. Less N was present in the TD as compared with the INJ system in the crop (grain and stalk), soil, and tile drainage water. Loss of N from the TD system was attributed to NH₃–N volatilization more so than to runoff of manure left on the soil surface. Seasonal variation in N losses by these mechanisms increases the difficulty of predicting LSM-N availability with TD application. Loss of N from TD systems could eventually result in accumulation of soil P if the N demand is met by increasing manure application rates.

Rate of injection was critical for both optimizing N-use efficiency and minimizing the environmental impacts of fertilizing corn with LSM. With LSM_37.4 INJ, apparent N recovery by corn, which accounts for uptake in the control was 32%. This is comparable with reported values of apparent fertilizer N recovery and greater than previous estimates of manure N recovery. At optimal sidedress INJ rates, there was little evidence of significant N transfer to the surrounding environment. In contrast, where manure was injected at above-optimal rates, residual topsoil NO₃–N concentrations rose above 10 mg kg^–1, tile drainage water NO₃–N concentrations increased in the fall and following spring, and NO₃–N moved to deeper soil layers. The stalk NO₃–N test similarly indicated surplus N where LSM-N was injected in excess of crop demand, with treatment effects identical to those in the topsoil postharvest. Nitrate concentrations in topsoil, stalks, and tile water at the end of the season and in tile water the subsequent spring were all good indicators of residual N and are thus useful for reporting on N management. Tile water NO₃–N concentrations did not change in the weeks following application and so were not useful for tracing incidental manure movement to tile drainage water (i.e., bypass flow). Partitioning of LSM-N applied in excess of crop uptake was greater in soil (23% in topsoil + 21% in subsoil) than in tile drainage water (8%) at supra-optimal application rates (average of LSM_93.5 and LSM_74.8). With precise application rates, placement, and timing, corn nutrient requirements can be met using LSM without compromising the environment. When manure was injected rather than topdressed at rates near optimal for yield, which averaged 216 kg LSM-N ha^–1 in our study, crop N use was efficient and environmental impacts were minimal.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
This work was funded by Ontario Pork and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada's Matching Investment Initiative. We thank A. More, K. Henning, A. Dumayne, AAFC-farm operations, Nuhn Industries, Green Lea Ag Centre, A & L Laboratories, Logan Tractor, Dekalb, OMAF, Van Raay Farms, T. Groenestegue, V. Hulsof, and K. Otto for their contributions to this study.

Received for publication April 12, 2005.

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